Household food insecurity remains a significant issue in the U.S., particularly among households with children, highlighting the crucial role of school meal programs in mitigating food insecurity and improving children's health and academic performance. Nutrition Policy Institute researchers explored how food security status is related to parental perceptions and student participation in school meals. The study surveyed 1,110 California parents with children in public or charter K-12 schools from diverse socioeconomic backgrounds in California, a state that adopted a universal school meals policy starting in the 2022-23 school year. The study found that 38% of parents who were not income-eligible for federal free or reduced-price school meals reported experiencing household food insecurity. School breakfasts were accessed at a higher rate by families reporting food insecurity compared to those reporting food security. However, parents experiencing food insecurity had less favorable perceptions of school meals and perceived more stigma associated with eating school meals. Interestingly, parents from households of all income levels recognized school meals as beneficial in saving time and money. These findings highlight the importance of universal school meal policies in addressing food insecurity, especially among students who would be excluded from receiving school meals free of charge under the federal eligibility criteria. However, addressing concerns about stigma as well as meal quality and appeal may further ease food insecurity and improve child health. The study was published online in October 2024 in the Nutrients journal, co-authored by NPI researchers Monica Zuercher, Christina Hecht, Kenneth Hecht, Dania Orta-Aleman Dania, Wendi Gosliner and Lorrene Ritchie; Juliana Cohen and Leah Chapman with Merrimack College and Harvard; Deborah Olarte with New York University; and Margaret Read with Partnership for a Healthier America. This research was funded by California General Fund SB 170.
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Study finds universal school meals boost access and ease food insecurity
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NPI presents on solid waste reduction achieved by schools transitioning to reusables in school meals at the Green California Schools and Higher Education Summit
Nutrition Policy Institute researcher, Celeste Felix, will present evaluation findings showing reductions in solid waste when a large, urban California school district transitioned from reheated pre-packaged school meals served with single-use disposables to freshly prepared meals served with reusable trays and cutlery. Felix will be joined by project collaborators Stephanie Willits from Fremont Unified School District and Benjamin Schleifer from the Center for Environmental Health. Their talk, “Reusables in the Cafeteria: A School District's Journey to Zero Waste,” will take place on November 13, 2024 from 10-11am at the Pasadena Conference Center as part of the Green California Schools & Higher Education Summit. The evaluation results are from a multi-year project funded by the US Department of Agriculture, Agriculture and Food Research Initiative. The project aims to understand the impact of transitioning to freshly-prepared school meals on meal appeal, student participation, food and packaging waste, and school finances.
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Job opening: Cooperative Extension Specialist and Director Nutrition Policy Institute at the University of California
The University of California, Agriculture and Natural Resources invites applications for a UC Cooperative Extension Specialist to become the next Director of the Nutrition Policy Institute. The Director leads strategic food and nutrition policy research, cultivates partnerships, identifies and secures grant funding, and provides overall leadership and operational oversight of the Nutrition Policy Institute. This position is based in Oakland, CA, and is focused on work across the state as well as nationally. The beginning salary will be in the Cooperative Extension Specialist series, Associate Step 1 $109,000 to Full Title Specialist Step VI $184,500 and commensurate with applicable experience and professional qualifications. The Cooperative Extension position is a two- or three-year renewable term appointment and is eligible for indefinite status (no end) after three terms. Application packets must be received by December 31, 2024 to assure full consideration. More information on how to apply is available online. Questions? Contact Tatiana Avoce – email: tavoce@ucanr.edu. The University of California is an Equal Opportunity/Affirmative Action Employer.
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New study identifies SNAP shopper and farmers’ market staff perceptions of benefits and challenges of a pilot supplemental benefit model
A 2024 study identified Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program, commonly known as SNAP, shopper and farmers' market staff perceptions of the California Fruit and Vegetable Electronic Benefit Transfer Pilot Project. This effort, spearheaded by the California Department of Social Services, tested a new model for the California Nutrition Incentive Program, or CNIP, California's longer-running supplemental benefit program that provides matching dollars to SNAP participants to purchase fruits and vegetables at farmers' markets. The Pilot Project differed from the traditional CNIP dollar-for-dollar incentive match model in several ways, including offering a $60 monthly supplemental benefit that could be redeemed in a single shopping trip, rather than weekly increments, and the ability to spend the supplemental benefit on any SNAP-eligible item at any retail location, rather than solely on fruits and vegetables at the farmers' market, as required by CNIP. Focus groups with 40 SNAP shoppers and 17 farmers' market staff indicated that shoppers appreciated the ability to earn the full monthly benefit during a single shopping trip and the option to spend it on any SNAP-eligible item at any retailer. Most shoppers reported spending the additional benefit at grocery stores rather than farmers' markets, validating staff concerns about SNAP shoppers not spending their supplemental benefit dollars at farmers' markets. Challenges included difficulties understanding the pilot program and longer lines at farmers' markets to access the benefits. The study, funded by the Ecology Center and the California Department of Social Services, was published October 2024 in the journal Nutrients by NPI co-authors Ron Strochlic, Sridharshi Hewawitharana and Wendi Gosliner and former NPI team member Carolyn Chelius.
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NPI researchers present at annual American Public Health Association conference
The American Public Health Association's 2024 Annual Meeting & Expo will take place in Minneapolis, Minnesota from October 27-29, 2024 to gather nearly 13,000 public health professionals to connect, learn, and inspire each other. This year's conference centers on "Rebuilding Trust in Public Health and Science," focusing on the challenges posed by political polarization, underfunding, and distrust in scientific research. Nutrition Policy Institute researchers will present recent findings on school recess and physical education and universal school meal policies. A list of the live oral presentations is found below.
- Not all fun and games: Disparities in school recess persist and must be addressed
- Authors: Hannah Thompson, Rebecca London
- Date: Monday, October 28, 11:00 - 11:15 a.m. CDT. Oral presentation by Hannah Thompson
- Statewide universal school meals policies are associated with greater household food security
- Authors: Dania Orta-Aleman, Monica Zuercher, Lorrene Ritchie, Juliana Cohen, Wendi Gosliner
- Date: Tuesday, October 29, 9:10 - 9:30 a.m. CDT. Oral presentation by Dania Orta-Aleman
- Impact of a multilevel, multicomponent intervention to improve elementary school physical education on student cardiorespiratory fitness
- Authors: Hannah Thompson, Kristine Madsen, Caroline Nguyen, Thomas McKenzie, Sally Picciotto
- Date: Wednesday, October 30, 8:30 - 8:45 a.m. CDT. Oral presentation by Hannah Thompson
- Not all fun and games: Disparities in school recess persist and must be addressed
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University of California research group releases new fact sheet on sugary drinks and tooth decay
University of California's Research Consortium on Beverages and Health released a new fact sheet to help educate community members and decision-makers on added-sugar consumption in sugary drinks as a leading cause of tooth decay. The fact sheet, ‘Sugary Drinks: A Double Whammy for Teeth', explains how the acids and sugars in sugary drinks contribute to tooth decay. The Consortium previously released five other fact sheets on sugary drinks. All the Consortium fact sheets translate the science into key points, provided in language that is short and easy to read. The Consortium—comprised of faculty working across the field of sugar science from all ten UC campuses and UC Agriculture and Natural Resources—is coordinated by the Nutrition Policy Institute under the leadership of Christina Hecht, Ken Hecht, and Pat Crawford. Please contact Ken Hecht for more information about the Consortium and Christina Hecht for additional resources for community education on healthy beverage choices.
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NPI submits comments to US Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee on drinking water, added sugars and saturated fat
The US Departments of Health and Human Services and Agriculture encourage public engagement in the development of the 2025 Dietary Guidelines for Americans. The 2025 Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee is currently reviewing the latest nutrition science to develop a report with its recommendations for HHS and USDA. The Nutrition Policy Institute at the University of California recently submitted two comments to the Committee: (1) advocating for drinking water consumption recommendations in the report and adding a water symbol to MyPlate, and (2) addressing possible modifications on recommendations to limit added sugars and saturated fat intake in the report. The Committee's scientific report will be published soon, followed by a public comment period to gather feedback. The report and public feedback will be used by HHS and USDA to inform the development of the 2025 Dietary Guidelines for Americans. Learn more about the process and how you can get involved.
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NPI’s collaborative research featured in Nutrients special journal issue on School Meals and Children’s Dietary Behaviour
Nutrition Policy Institute's collaborative research was featured in a Nutrients journal special issue, “School Meals and Children's Dietary Behaviour.” The special issue, coordinated by guest editor Pamela Koch from Teachers College Columbia University, highlights research reporting on novel and innovative ways for school meals to have a positive influence on children. Included is a 2023 article co-authored by NPI's Christina Hecht, Ken Hecht and collaborators, “Parent Perception of School Meals in the San Joaquin Valley during COVID-19: A Photovoice Project.” Two articles published in 2022 from NPI's School Meals for All research team are also featured, including “Implementation of Universal School Meals during COVID-19 and beyond: Challenges and Benefits for School Meals Programs in Maine” and “Providing School Meals to All Students Free of Charge during the COVID-19 Pandemic and Beyond: Challenges and Benefits Reported by School Foodservice Professionals in California,” co-authored by NPI's Christina Hecht, Ken Hecht, Monica Zuercher, Wendi Gosliner, Lorrene Ritchie and collaborators. The special issue and articles are available freely online. NPI's more recent school meals for all research findings are also available online.
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NPI researcher Kassandra Bacon to present at the 2024 Child and Adult Care Food Program conference
Nutrition Policy Institute's Kassandra Bacon will present with CACFP Roundtable's Samantha Kay-Daleiden Marshall at the 2024 Annual CACFP Conference at Universal Studios, CA. The conference focuses on the growth of the Child and Adult Care Food Program, commonly known as CACFP. On October 8, 2:30pm-3:30pm PT, a workshop, “Impacts of COVID-19 Changes to Meal and Snack Reimbursements on Family Child Care Home Providers, Children and Families” will highlight research by NPI's Kassandra Bacon, Danielle Lee, Celeste Felix, Lorrene Ritchie, UC Berkeley's Susana Matias, and CACFP Roundtable's Samantha Kay-Daleiden Marshall and Elyse Homel Vitale. Their research examines the effects of both higher CACFP reimbursement rates for family child care homes during COVID-19 and the return to lower rates post-COVID-19. They will share results from surveys and interviews with California-based providers and sponsors on the nutritional quality of meals and snacks served in child care homes, and food security for child care providers and families. The workshop will engage CACFP stakeholders to develop proposed policy solutions based on study findings.
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Recent study reveals increased CACFP reimbursements during COVID-19 boosted meal quality in California family child care homes
The federal Child and Adult Care Food Program, commonly known as CACFP, provides tiered reimbursements to family childcare homes to ensure children in low-income communities have access to healthy meals. To address heightened food insecurity during the COVID-19 pandemic, tiers were eliminated and all participating family childcare home providers received increased CACFP reimbursement rates. Nutrition Policy Institute researchers examined the perceived impacts of increased reimbursements on CACFP participation and challenges anticipated with the reinstatement of tiered rates after the pandemic from surveys completed by 518 California providers. Results showed that the temporary higher reimbursement rates lowered out-of-pocket food costs, were more adequate than rates prior to COVID-19, and supported greater perceived variety, quality, and healthfulness of foods served, especially for tier 2 providers who previously received the lowest reimbursement. Removal of the tiered reimbursements may help improve child nutrition and address the rise of nutrition-related chronic conditions. The study was published in the Nutrients journal by NPI researchers Lorrene Ritchie, Kassandra Bacon, Celeste Felix, and Danielle Lee, Samantha Marshall and Elyse Homel Vitale with the CACFP Roundtable, and Susana Matias with the Department of Nutritional Sciences and Toxicology at the University of California, Berkeley.
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Arizona survey of food service directors finds the transition away from free school meals posed challenges for students, parents, and administration
A 2023 Arizona survey of food service directors and school nutrition staff identified the effects of the move away from free school meals for all students in the 2022-2023 academic year. While Arizona students no longer were provided free school meals for all, a statewide policy that eliminated co-pays for reduced-price lunch took effect in January 2023, expanding the population of students able to receive meals without charge. The survey respondents represented almost one-third of Arizona school districts with most districts having at least 40% of students eligible for free or reduced-price lunch. That academic year, 71% of schools reported experiencing a decline in school meal participation. Respondents perceived that inadequate meal variety, taste or portion sizes, as well as stigma around free and reduced-price lunch contributed to the student participation decline. Respondents also reported perceiving that students prefer meals from home or skipping meals potentially due to high cost. Food service professionals felt that parents were confused about changing meal costs and the burden of an additional application process to qualify for free or reduced-price lunch. More than half of respondents reported an increase in paperwork for administration and staffing challenges. Factors that helped schools during this time included federal Supply Chain Assistance funds, state and federal funding for school meals, and a supportive district administration.
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NPI welcomes UC Irvine graduate student Christian Black as UC Bonnie Reiss Climate Action Sustainable Agriculture and Food Fellow
Christian Black joined the Nutrition Policy Institute at the University of California in September 2024 as our 2024-2025 UC Bonnie Reiss Climate Action Fellowship, Sustainable Agriculture and Food Fellow. Black is a graduate student pursuing a Master's in Public Health with a concentration on Community Health at UC Irvine Joe C. Wen School of Population & Public Health, where he utilizes salivary biomarkers and wearable devices to study the relationship between harsh prison environments and health longevity. As an NPI fellow, Black will support efforts to improve food and nutrition security among currently and formerly incarcerated individuals in California. This 10-month fellowship is part of the 2024-2025 UC Bonnie Reiss Climate Action Fellowship Program, formerly known as the UC Global Food Initiative, which supports the UC's climate goals by reducing greenhouse gas emissions and establishing climate programs and policies centered on equity, sustainability, and resiliency. In addition to working with the NPI Farm to Corrections project team, Black will participate in UC systemwide activities.
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Article in EdSource discusses the “Recess for All” law and the benefits of physical activity at California schools
An article in EdSource by Hannah Thompson of the Nutrition Policy Institute and Rebecca London of the University of California Santa Cruz discussed the impacts of the “Recess for All” law in California schools. The law requires at least 30 minutes of recess in elementary schools and bans taking away recess as punishment. Research in education and child development has found that recess benefits behavioral, mental, and physical health in students. Surveys of students have found that recess is a popular subject statewide. Recess also helped students recover from social isolation during the COVID-19 pandemic. It can help students develop interpersonal skills and later focus in the classroom and improve learning. The “Recess for All” law has helped create equity among schools, as students of color and in low-income areas have historically had less recess time. However, the benefits of recess have been underestimated with the rise in standardized testing and decrease in recess and arts during the No Child Left Behind era. Hopefully, with the support of parents and students, the “Recess for All” law can be implemented equally throughout California elementary schools.
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Article in The Daily Californian highlights Berkeley’s unprecedented soda tax, and its potential for indefinite renewal
A 2024 article by Matthew Yoshimoto of The Daily Californian discussed Berkeley's 2014 soda tax, and its presence on the ballot in November 2024. Since its implementation, the soda tax, a 1-cent-per-ounce excise tax on sugar-sweetened beverages, has had drastic impacts on community health. By 2017, consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages decreased by over 50% and water consumption increased by almost 30%. The revenue has funded efforts to improve the nutrition environment in the low-income and minority communities hardest hit by the sugary drinks. NPI's Ken Hecht highlighted that health in Black and Latine communities has especially benefited from the soda tax's direct and indirect effects. The soda tax has also helped in the efforts to combat childhood obesity. According to a study by Kaiser Permanente, cities where the tax is implemented did not show an increase in childhood obesity rates while rates are increasing elsewhere. Berkeley's change has had a positive ripple effect, with cities including Oakland and San Francisco following with their own taxes on sugar-sweetened beverages. Though the soda tax has had overwhelming support from voters, due to push back from soda companies there are new legislative barriers concerning the tax. While a tax increase is currently not an option for Berkeley, there is hope that in November 2024, voters will consider the positive effects of the soda tax and support its indefinite renewal.
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Receive free milk for one year and up to $275 by participating in a study on milk consumption for toddlers
With childhood obesity on the rise, research in early life dietary habits are essential to promoting long-term health in children. The current recommendation is for children to drink whole milk from ages 1-2 years, then drink low-fat 1% or non-fat 0% milk. However, there is limited research to support this recommendation. Milk Type in Toddlers—also known as Milk-TOT—is a study being conducted by the Nutrition Policy Institute in partnership with Stanford University and funded by the National Institute of Health. In this randomized control trial, toddlers ages 23-30 months, in the San Francisco Bay Area, will receive whole or low-fat 1% milk for one year through grocery delivery. Their height, weight, waist circumference, diet, and other health markers will be measured throughout the study. Parents will also receive nutrition guidance from a registered dietitian. This study aims to reduce childhood obesity by improving nutrition recommendations and creating long-term healthy eating habits. If your child is healthy and between the ages of 23-30 months they may be eligible for participation. To determine eligibility please fill out this survey. For more information or questions email milktotstsudy@ucanr.edu or call 510-987-9023.
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NPI’s 10 year anniversary honored by Senator Nancy Skinner and Assembly Member Mia Bonta with California Legislature members resolution
California Senator Nancy Skinner and Assembly Member Mia Bonta honored the Nutrition Policy Institute with a joint California Legislature members resolution to honor our decade of positive impact. As highlighted in the resolution, founded on February 18, 2014, within the University of California, Agriculture and Natural Resources, NPI's research has informed policies such as free school meals for over 6 million students and funding for school kitchen equipment. NPI's work led to increased recess for students, enhanced funding for the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women Infants and Children (commonly known as WIC), healthier beverage policies in childcare, and food security initiatives at UC campuses. Our efforts also expanded Farm to Corrections programs and improved CalFresh Healthy Living interventions, enhancing fitness and diet-related outcomes for children. As a trusted resource for legislative bodies, NPI provides science-based policy recommendations, contributing significantly to public health in California. Read the full resolution online.
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Hiring survey workers to support study on drinking water in child care centers in San Jose
The Nutrition Policy Institute is seeking to hire data collectors to contribute to a study in childcare centers across San Jose and Gilroy, Calif. The study consists of a multi-level intervention to promote healthy beverage intake through childcare—Healthy Drinks, Healthy Futures or Bebidas Saludables, Futuros Saludables. Data collectors will observe and measure the amount of water and food children consume in one day at child care. They will need to: have the ability to sit/stand for at least 4 hours; be patient, detail-oriented, and observant; have relevant experience in the field of nutrition and dietetics; candidates with an interest in pediatric nutrition are preferred; have the ability to use scales, calculators, and are familiar with the rigor needed to perform quality research. Opportunity to participate in further work, such as data analysis, data entry, and manuscript publication is an option. This study will begin in late August or September 2024. Data collection will occur between 7 a.m. to 6 p.m. with a two-hour lunch break. We are seeking those available to work one to four days a week for three to four weeks. The rate of pay for a Survey Worker is around $28 per hour. Travel costs are covered. To apply, please email Reka Vasicsek at rvasicsek@ucanr.edu by September 1, 2024. The University of California is an Equal Opportunity/Affirmative Action Employer. All qualified applicants will receive consideration for employment without regard to race, color, religion, sex, sexual orientation, gender identity, national origin, disability, age, protected veteran status, or other protected categories covered by the UC nondiscrimination policy.
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Article in The Guardian highlights barriers to potable water access in schools and childcare centers nationwide despite legislation to ensure water availability
A 2024 article by Lela Nargi of The Guardian discussed the issue of potable water in schools and how inconsistent regulation can put children at risk for under-hydration or lead exposure. The article highlighted a 2022 study by NPI's Christina Hecht and collaborators and included quotes from Hecht, who described the development of legislation for drinking water in the federal child nutrition programs. In 2010, the Healthy, Hunger-Free Kids Act made free potable drinking water a requirement during meal times at all US schools participating in the National School Lunch Program and childcare facilities participating in the Child and Adult Care Food Program. However, states' varied implementation of the law plus a lack of funding for drinking water needs has left some schools with inadequate water sources or compromised quality. While a 2019 USDA survey of 1,257 schools indicated a 95% compliance rate with the Healthy, Hunger-Free Kids Act, experts including Christina Hecht, who coordinates the National Drinking Water Alliance with the Nutrition Policy Institute, highlight how this survey did not collect adequate data to determine whether safe and appealing drinking water was truly accessible. Lead contamination is a primary concern. Hecht and partners' 2022 study found 13% to 81% of 5,688 schools in seven states with available data had tap water with lead levels above 5 parts per billion (ppb). For comparison, FDA requires that bottled water have no more than 5 ppb of lead while the American Academy of Pediatrics recommends a maximum of 1 ppb for school drinking water. States have varying requirements for lead testing of school and licensed childcare drinking water and, while federal funds for testing have been available since 2016 through an EPA-administered program, it was only with the passage of the Bipartisan Infrastructure Law of 2021 that federal funds were allocated to assist schools with remediation of lead in tap water.
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NPI researcher Lorrene Ritchie presents at 2024 Society for Nutrition Education and Behavior conference
Nutrition Policy Institute Director Dr. Lorrene Ritchie presents at the Society for Nutrition Education and Behavior, SNEB, 2024 international conference. This year's international conference, themed “Understanding Foodways: Learning, Growing, and Sustaining,” will highlight the reasons why we eat the foods we eat and the impacts of those choices on ourselves and our communities. The SNEB conference takes place at the University of Tennessee in Knoxville and through a virtual livestream from July 29th through August 1st, 2024. Lorrene Ritchie participates in a session on August 1, 3:30-4:30 p.m. ET titled “Food Waste Reduction Efforts: The Intersection of Food Ways, Climate Change, and Human Health,” along with Sara Elkbakib and Yu Meng. Additionally, Ritchie presents a poster on July 31, 4:30-5:30 p.m. ET titled “Boosting the Benefits of WIC: Exploring Participant Perspectives from the 2023 Multi-State WIC Survey;” co-authored by NPI's Danielle Lee and Celeste Felix as well as Georgia Machell, and Loan Kim. Ritchie is one member of the team for an additional poster presentation on July 31, 4:30-5:30 p.m. EST titled “Child and Adult Care Food Program Meal Reimbursement Rates and Program Participation by Family Child Care Homes in California,” presented by Susana Matias of UC Berkeley's Nutritional Sciences and Toxicology Department, and co-authored by NPI's Danielle Lee, Kassandra Bacon, and Celeste Felix, and CACFP Roundtable's Samantha Kay-Daleiden Marshall and Elyse Homel Vitale. Furthermore, Ritchie gives an oral presentation on July 31, 2:30-3:15 p.m. ET titled “Impact of Increased Child and Adult Care Food Program Reimbursement Rates for Family Child Care Home Providers in California,” co-authored by NPI's Danielle Lee, Kassandra Bacon, and Celeste Felix, CACFP Roundtable's Samantha Kay-Daleiden Marshall and Elyse Homel Vitale, and UC Berkeley's Susana Matias. Lastly, Ritchie speaks on July 31, 3:30-4:30 p.m. ET and a subsequent invited poster presentation on August 1, 4:30-5:30 p.m. ET titled “Transition to freshly prepared school meals: impact of meal appeal student participation, intake, food and packaging waste & school finance,” co-authored by NPI's Celeste Felix, Danielle Lee, and Wendi Gosliner, as well as UC Berkeley School of Public Health's Hannah Thompson, Caroline Nguyen, and Kris Madsen.
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Students perceive that Universal School Meals reduce stigma, promote food security, simplify payments and increase participation
A recently published study reveals that California students appreciate Universal School Meals, reporting that having meals free of charge for all students made school meals more accessible, reduced stigma, improved food security, and streamlined the process for receiving meals. Prompted by the rise in food insecurity during the COVID-19 pandemic, in 2020-2022 the USDA implemented an unprecedented change allowing schools to serve meals free of charge to all students regardless of household income. For many students, school meals are their primary source of nutritious food. This qualitative study, conducted in 9 different regions in California, interviewed 67 middle and high school students, representative of the demographic profile of students in the state, about their experiences with Universal School Meals during the pandemic. Students expressed widespread appreciation for the program and a desire for its continuation. Students of different backgrounds agreed that the program supported food security by relieving the financial burden on families during an economically hard time. This was achieved through easier access to school meals by eliminating income barriers and the eligibility process. Universal School Meals also reduced the stigma faced by those who receive free or reduced-price school meals by including everyone in the program. There is still room for improvement, as students expressed concern about the quality and quantity of food served during the pandemic and perceived greater food waste. California was the first state to commit to continuing Universal School Meals beyond the 2021-2022 school year. This study was published online in the Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior co-authored by Dania Orta-Aleman, Monica Zuercher, Kassandra Bacon, Carolyn Chelius, Christina Hecht, Ken Hecht, Lorrene Ritchie, and Wendi Gosliner of the Nutrition Policy Institute and Juliana Cohen of Merrimack College. This research was funded by California General Fund SB 170.
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